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https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.06%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law_-_Pre-exponential_Factor... |
The pre-exponential factor (\(A\)) is an important component of the Arrhenius equation, which was formulated by the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius in 1889. The pre-exponential factor is also known as the and represents the frequency of collisions between reactant molecules at a standard concentration... | 5,381 | 0 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/The_Solubility_of_the_Hydroxides_S... |
This page discusses the solubility of the hydroxides, sulfates and carbonates of the Group 2 elements—beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium—in water Group II metal oxide basicity and hydroxide solubility in water increase as you go down the column. BeO and Be(OH)2 are amphoteric and react with acid... | 2,800 | 1 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Reactions_of_Group_2_Elements_with... |
Group 2 elements (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium) react oxygen. to generate metal oxides. This Module addressed why it is difficult to observe a tidy pattern of this reactivity. On the whole, the metals burn in oxygen to form a simple metal oxide. Beryllium is reluctant to burn unless it is ... | 6,687 | 2 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/The_Thermal_Stability_of_the_Nitra... |
This page examines at the effect of heat on the carbonates and nitrates of the Group 2 elements (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium). It explains how the thermal stability of the compounds changes down the group. All the carbonates in this group undergo thermal decomposition to the metal oxide a... | 8,485 | 3 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Reactions_of_Group_2_Elements_with... |
This page discusses the reactions of the Group 2 elements ( , , , and barium) with water, using these reactions to describe the trend in reactivity in . Beryllium reacts with steam at high temperatures (typically around 700°C or more) to give white beryllium oxide and hydrogen. \[ Be_{(s)} + H_2O_{(g)} \righ... | 4,702 | 4 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law-_Activation_Energies |
All molecules possess a certain minimum amount of energy. The energy can be in the form of kinetic energy or potential energy. When molecules collide, the kinetic energy of the molecules can be used to stretch, bend, and ultimately break bonds, leading to chemical reactions. If molecules move too slowly... | 7,603 | 5 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Alkaline_Earth_(Group_II)_Trends |
1. Beryllium is the least reactive and does not react with water even at red heat and does not react with N . Magnesium only reacts at reasonable rate with steam, calcium and strontium readily tarnish in moist air and barium tarnishes readily. 2. The ionic character of the compounds increases down the G... | 4,063 | 6 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Prediction_of_Aromatic_Anti_Aromatic_and_Non_Aromatic_Character_of_Heterocyclic_Compounds_along_with_their_Omission_Behavior-_Inn... |
In this article, formulae based mnemonics by classifying lone pair of electrons (localized or delocalized) have been highlighted in an innovative and time economic way to enhance interest of students’ on heterocyclic chemistry for determination of planarity by calculating Hybridization state of hetero a... | 14,532 | 7 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Group_2%3A_General_Properties |
The elements in the group include beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). Group 2 contains soft, silver metals that are less metallic in character than the Group 1 elements. Although many characteristics are common throughout the group, the heavier met... | 11,369 | 9 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.04%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law_-_Arrhenius_Plots |
In 1889, Svante Arrhenius proposed the from his direct observations of the plots of rate constants vs. temperatures: \[k = Ae^{-\frac{E_a}{RT}} \label{eq1} \] The , E , is the minimum energy molecules must possess in order to react to form a product. The slope of the Arrhenius plot can be used to fi... | 5,519 | 10 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/09%3A_The_Electronic_States_of_the_Multielectron_Atoms/9.06%3A_Electron_Configurations%2C_The_Pauli_Exclusion_Principle%2C_The_Aufbau_Principle%2C_and_Slater_Determina... |
To discuss the electronic states of atoms we need a system of notation for multi-electron wavefunctions. As we saw in Chapter 8, the assignment of electrons to orbitals is called the electron configuration of the atom. One creates an electronic configuration representing the electronic structure of a multi-elect... | 14,763 | 11 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Reactions_of_Group_2_Elements_with... |
This page discusses the reactions of the Group 2 elements (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium) with common acids. Each metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing bubbles of hydrogen gas and a colorless solution of the metal chloride: \[ X + 2HCl \rightarrow XCl_2 + H_2\] These reactio... | 2,882 | 12 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/10%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_I_-_Ionic_and_Radical_Addition_Reactions/10.05%3A_Orientation_in_Addition_to_Alkenes |
Addition of an unsymmetrical substance such as \(\ce{HX}\) to an unsymmetrical alkene theoretically can give two products: and Both products are seldom formed in equal amounts; in fact, one isomer usually is formed to the exclusion of the other. For example, the hydration of propene gives 2-propanol (not 1-p... | 8,768 | 13 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.05%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law_-_Direction_Matters |
Complicated molecular structures increase the likelihood that the rate constant depends on the trajectories with which the reactants approach each other. This kind of is well-known to all students of organic chemistry. Consider the addition of a hydrogen halide such as HCl to the double bond of an alkene, conve... | 1,371 | 14 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.01%3A_Arrhenius_Equation |
It is common knowledge that chemical reactions occur more rapidly at higher temperatures. Milk turns sour much more rapidly if stored at room temperature rather than in a refrigerator; butter goes rancid more quickly in the summer than in the winter; and eggs hard-boil more quickly at sea level than in the mount... | 11,107 | 15 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/11%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_II_-_Oxidation_and_Reduction_Reactions._Acidity_of_Alkynes/11.06%3A_Addition_of_Boron_Hydrides_to_Alkenes._Organoboranes |
An especially valuable group of intermediates can be prepared by addition of an compound to carbon-carbon double or triple bonds: The reaction is called and is a versatile synthesis of organoboron compounds. One example is the addition of diborane, \(\ce{B_2H_6}\), to ethene. Diborane behaves as though it is... | 9,840 | 17 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/17%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_II-_Enols_and_Enolate_Anions._Unsaturated_and_Polycarbonyl_Compounds/17.04%3A_Nucleophilic_Addition_Reactions_of_Enolate_Anions |
A most important property of enolate anions, at least as far as synthesis is concerned, is their excellent nucleophilicity, which enables them to to double bonds and to participate in nucleophilic substitution. When the addition is to a carbonyl double bond, it is called an (Equation 17-4). Additions of enol... | 11,538 | 18 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Chemical_Equilibria/Calculating_An_Equilibrium_Concentrations/Writing_Equilibrium_Constant_Expressions_Involving_Gases/Gas_Equilibrium_Constants |
\(K_c\) and \(K_p\) are the equilibrium constants of gaseous mixtures. However, the difference between the two constants is that \(K_c\) is defined by molar concentrations, whereas \(K_p\) is defined by the partial pressures of the gasses inside a closed system. The equilibrium constants do not include ... | 13,145 | 20 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/16%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_I-_Aldehydes_and_Ketones._Addition_Reactions_of_the_Carbonyl_Group/16.10%3A_Preparative_Methods_for_Aldehydes_and_Ketones |
A number of useful reactions for the preparation of aldehydes and ketones, such as ozonization of alkenes and hydration of alkynes, have been considered in previous chapters. These and other methods of preparation are summarized in Tables 16-7 and 16-8 at the end of the chapter. Only a few rather general methods... | 8,506 | 21 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/0Group_17%3A_Physical_Properties_of_the_Halogens/Group_17%3A_General_Properties_of_Halogens |
The halogens are located on the left of the noble gases on the periodic table. These five toxic, non-metallic elements make up Group 17 of the periodic table and consist of: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). Although astatine is radioactive and only has short-live... | 6,871 | 22 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_13%3A_The_Boron_Family/Z013_Chemistry_of_Aluminum_(Z13)/Case_Study%3A_Conversion_of_Bauxite_Ore_to_Aluminum_______Metal |
Aluminum is found in varying amounts in nature as aluminosilicates (contains aluminum, silicon, and oxygen) in various types of clay. As the minerals are weathered they gradually breakdown into various forms of hydrated aluminum oxide, Al O .xH O, known as bauxite. The bauxite is purified by the . Firs... | 2,628 | 23 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/11%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_II_-_Oxidation_and_Reduction_Reactions._Acidity_of_Alkynes/11.07%3A_Oxidation_Reactions |
Most alkenes react readily with ozone \(\left( \ce{O_3} \right)\), even at low temperatures, to yield cyclic peroxidic derivatives known as . For example, These substances, like most compounds with peroxide \(\left( \ce{O-O} \right)\) bonds, may explode violently and unpredictably. Therefore ozonizations must b... | 5,997 | 24 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/0Group_17%3A_Physical_Properties_of_the_Halogens/Physical_Properties_of_the_Group_17_Elements |
This page discusses the trends in some atomic and physical properties of the Group 17 elements (the halogens): fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Sections below describe the trends in atomic radius, electronegativity, electron affinity, melting and boiling points, and solubility. There is also a section on ... | 1,519 | 25 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.02%3A_Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/6.2.03%3A_The_Arrhenius_Law/6.2.3.02%3A_The_Arrhenius_Equation |
This page examines rate constant variation with temperature and activation energy, as shown by the Arrhenius equation. The rate equation for a reaction between two substances, A and B, is the following: The rate equation shows the effect of changing the reactant concentrations on the rate of the reaction. All ot... | 2,499 | 26 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/11%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_II_-_Oxidation_and_Reduction_Reactions._Acidity_of_Alkynes/11.06%3A_Addition_of_Boron_Hydrides_to_Alkenes._Organoboranes |
An especially valuable group of intermediates can be prepared by addition of an compound to carbon-carbon double or triple bonds: The reaction is called and is a versatile synthesis of organoboron compounds. One example is the addition of diborane, \(\ce{B_2H_6}\), to ethene. Diborane behaves as though it is... | 9,840 | 27 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/11%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_II_-_Oxidation_and_Reduction_Reactions._Acidity_of_Alkynes/11.06%3A_Addition_of_Boron_Hydrides_to_Alkenes._Organoboranes |
An especially valuable group of intermediates can be prepared by addition of an compound to carbon-carbon double or triple bonds: The reaction is called and is a versatile synthesis of organoboron compounds. One example is the addition of diborane, \(\ce{B_2H_6}\), to ethene. Diborane behaves as though it is... | 9,840 | 28 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/16%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_I-_Aldehydes_and_Ketones._Addition_Reactions_of_the_Carbonyl_Group/16.10%3A_Preparative_Methods_for_Aldehydes_and_Ketones |
A number of useful reactions for the preparation of aldehydes and ketones, such as ozonization of alkenes and hydration of alkynes, have been considered in previous chapters. These and other methods of preparation are summarized in Tables 16-7 and 16-8 at the end of the chapter. Only a few rather general methods... | 8,506 | 30 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/15%3A_Alcohols_and_Ethers/15.05%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alcohols._Reactions_Involving_the_O-H_Bond |
Several important chemical reactions of alcohols involve only the oxygen-hydrogen bond and leave the carbon-oxygen bond intact. An important example is salt formation with acids and bases. Alcohols, like water, are both weak bases and weak acids. The acid ionization constant \(\left( K_\text{a} \right)\) of etha... | 10,709 | 33 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/0Group_17%3A_Physical_Properties_of_the_Halogens/Atomic_and_Physical_Properties_of_Halogens |
This page discusses the trends in the atomic and physical properties of the Group 7 elements (the halogens): fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Sections below cover the trends in atomic radius, electronegativity, electron affinity, melting and boiling points, and solubility, including a discussion of the bo... | 9,444 | 35 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Isomers/Optical_Isomers_in_Inorganic_Complexes/Enantiomers_in_Octahedral_Complexes_with_Bidentate_Ligands |
Enantiomers are another kind of isomer that occur in octahedral metal complexes. Like the square planar platinum complexes seen before, these compounds consist of metal ions with other atoms or groups bound to them. More information about the binding of ligands to metals is found in the section on . These group... | 2,798 | 37 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.09%3A_General_Structural_Features_that_Modulate_Ligand_Activity |
There are many ways in which ligand affinity may be perturbed (Figure 4.25). It is convenient to divide these into two groups, referred to as distal and proximal effects. effects are associated with the stereochemistry of the metalloporphyrinato moiety and the coordination of the axial base, and thus th... | 9,668 | 38 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/11%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_II_-_Oxidation_and_Reduction_Reactions._Acidity_of_Alkynes/11.02%3A_Hydrogenation_with_Heterogeneous_Catalysts |
Addition of hydrogen to a multiple bond is . It is applicable to almost all types of multiple bonds and is of great importance in synthetic chemistry, particularly in the chemical industry. Probably the most important technical example is production of ammonia by the hydrogenation of nitrogen: This may appear t... | 6,839 | 39 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_16%3A_The_Oxygen_Family_(The_Chalcogens)/Z008_Chemistry_of_Oxygen_(Z8)/Ozone/Ozone_Layer_and_Ozone_Hole |
Contrary to common misconception, ozone is not in the form of thick layer surrounding atmosphere. Equally untrue is another misconception that a hole is made in this ozone layer. To understand low ozone spread in atmosphere, one needs to know the structure and composition of atmosphere. The distribution... | 2,999 | 42 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/16%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_I-_Aldehydes_and_Ketones._Addition_Reactions_of_the_Carbonyl_Group/16.05%3A_Typical_Carbonyl-Addition_Reactions |
We turn now to discuss a few specific addition reactions of the carbonyl groups of aldehydes and ketones. We shall not attempt to provide an extensive catalog of reactions, but will try to emphasize the principles involved with especially important reactions that are useful in synthesis. Grignard reagents, organ... | 19,399 | 43 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/17%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_II-_Enols_and_Enolate_Anions._Unsaturated_and_Polycarbonyl_Compounds/17.05%3A_Nucleophilic_Substitution_with_Enolate_Anions |
The synthetic chemistry of enolate anions is centered on their nucleophilic and basic properties. Accordingly these ions participate in \(S_\text{N}2\) reactions with suitable alkyl compounds: However, there are a number of complicating factors to consider. First, the basic conditions needed to form the enolate ... | 6,522 | 44 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Isomers/Optical_Isomers_in_Inorganic_Complexes/Identifying_Planes_of_Symmetry_in_Octahedral_Complexes |
The symmetry of a molecule is determined by the existence of performed with respect to . A symmetry element is a line, a plane or a point in or through an object, about which a rotation or reflection leaves the object in an orientation indistinguishable from the original. A plane of symmetry and the ... | 2,239 | 46 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/13%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_and_Thermodynamic_Equilibrium/13.3%3A_Entropy_and_Heat_-_Experimental_Basis_of_the_Second_Law_of_Thermodynamics |
Experiments show that the magnitude of ΔS is 80–90 J/(mol•K) for a wide variety of liquids with different boiling points. However, liquids that have highly ordered structures due to hydrogen bonding or other intermolecular interactions tend to have significantly higher values of ΔS . For instance, ΔS ... | 3,078 | 47 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/09%3A_Separation_Purification_and_Identification_of_Organic_Compounds/9.11%3A_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy |
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is extremely useful for identification and analysis of organic compounds. The principle on which this form of spectroscopy is based is simple. The nuclei of many kinds of atoms act like tiny magnets and tend to become aligned in a magnetic field. In NMR spectroscopy,... | 48,492 | 48 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/09%3A_Separation_Purification_and_Identification_of_Organic_Compounds/9.11%3A_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy |
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is extremely useful for identification and analysis of organic compounds. The principle on which this form of spectroscopy is based is simple. The nuclei of many kinds of atoms act like tiny magnets and tend to become aligned in a magnetic field. In NMR spectroscopy,... | 48,492 | 49 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_5%3A_Rates_of_Chemical_and_Physical_Processes/20%3A_Molecular_Spectroscopy_and_Photochemistry/20.2%3A_Vibrations_and_Rotations_of_Molecules%3A_Infrared_and_Microwave_Spectroscopy |
Covalent bonds in organic molecules are not rigid sticks – rather, they behave more like springs. At room temperature, organic molecules are always in motion, as their bonds stretch, bend, and twist. These complex vibrations can be broken down mathematically into individual , a few of which are illustr... | 9,528 | 50 |
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All of —lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium react vigorously or even explosively with cold water. In each case, the aqueous metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced, as shown: \[ 2X (s) + 2H_2O (l) \rightarrow 2XOH (aq) + H_2 (g)\] where \(X\) is any Group 1 metal. In each of the following desc... | 3,164 | 51 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases/Connecting_Gas_Properties_to_Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases |
When examining the ideal gas laws in conjunction with the kinetic theory of gases, we gain insights into the behavior of ideal gas. We can then predict how gas particles behaviors such as gas molecular speed, effusion rates, distances traveled by gas molecules. Graham's Law, which was formulated by the ... | 10,378 | 52 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__1%3A_The_Alkali_Metals/2Reactions_of_the_Group_1_Elements/Reactions_of_Group_I_Elements_with_Oxygen |
This page examines the reactions of the Group 1 elements (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium) with oxygen, and the simple reactions of the various oxides formed. Group 1 metals are very reactive, and must be stored out of contact with air to prevent oxidation. Reactivity increases as you go down the... | 4,361 | 53 |
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Many techniques have been used to probe the geometry and electronic structure of the metal-dioxygen moiety in biological systems and in synthetic models. The results form the basis of any understanding of the factors that determine and modulate oxygen affinity. By resonance Raman techniques, the O—O str... | 9,688 | 54 |
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The halides, oxides, and sulfides of the M ions become more stable on descending the group. For example SiCl , SiBr , and SiI are all stable. PbCl decomposes at 105 °C and PbI does not exist. Similarly the ease of oxidation of the M halides decreases down the column. PbCl may be converted to PbCl ... | 4,531 | 56 |
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When we can represent the envelope curve as a continuous function, the envelope curve is the derivative of the cumulative probability distribution function: The cumulative distribution function is \(f\left(u\right)\); the envelope function is \({df\left(u\right)}/{du}\). The envelope function is a , and we wi... | 2,632 | 57 |
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1. All elements are diatomic and molecular and the boiling and melting points increase as a result of the increasing van der Waals interactions between diatomic molecules for the heavier elements. 2. The elements are typical non-metals in their physical and chemical properties. They form anionic compoun... | 1,864 | 58 |
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The vast majority of reactions depend on thermal activation, so the major factor to consider is the fraction of the molecules that possess enough kinetic energy to react at a given temperature. According to , a population of molecules at a given temperature is distributed over a variety of kinetic energies that... | 2,678 | 59 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/04%3A_Alkanes/4.05%3A_Halogenation_of_Alkanes._Energies_and_Rates_of_Reactions |
The economies of the highly industrialized nations of the world are based in large part on energy and chemicals produced from petroleum. Although the most important and versatile intermediates for conversion of petroleum to chemicals are compounds with double or triple bonds, it also is possible to prepare many ... | 32,267 | 60 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_2%3A_Chemical_Bonding_and_Structure/8%3A_Bonding_in_Transition_Metal_Compounds_and_Coordination_Complexes/8.2%3A_Bonding_in_Simple_Molecules_That_Contain_Transition_Metals |
The oxidation state of an element is related to the number of electrons that an atom loses, gains, or appears to use when joining with another atom in compounds. It also determines the ability of an atom to oxidize (to lose electrons) or to reduce (to gain electrons) other atoms or species. Almost all o... | 9,691 | 62 |
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A year after Herschel discovered infrared radiation, Johann Ritter discovered radiation beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. This radiation came to be known as and soon was recognized as being especially effective in causing chemical reactions. Absorption of light in the ultraviolet and visible regio... | 7,123 | 65 |
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We can extend the idea of an expected value to a function of multiple random variables. Let and be distributions whose random variables are \(u\) and \(v\), respectively. Let the probability density functions for these distributions be \({df_u\left(u\right)}/{du}\) and \({df_v\left(v\right)}/{dv}\). In gener... | 7,756 | 67 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/17%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_II-_Enols_and_Enolate_Anions._Unsaturated_and_Polycarbonyl_Compounds/17.02%3A_Enolization_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones |
Transformation of a carbonyl compound to an enol at a useful rate normally requires either a basic catalyst or an acidic catalyst and, of course, at least one hydrogen on the \(\alpha\) carbon. The features of each type of catalysis follow. With a basic catalyst such as hydroxide ion, the first step in enolizati... | 4,469 | 68 |
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The charges on ions and the charge separation in polar molecules explain the fairly strong interactions between them, with very strong ion - ion interactions, weaker ion - dipole interactions, and considerably weaker . Even in a non-polar molecule, however, the valence electrons are moving around and t... | 655 | 70 |
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While interaction with infrared light causes molecules to undergo vibrational transitions, the shorter wavelength, higher energy radiation in the UV (200-400 nm) and visible (400-700 nm) range of the electromagnetic spectrum causes many organic molecules to undergo . What this means is that when the en... | 11,675 | 71 |
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The reactions of alkanes discussed in are processes, which means that the bonds are made and broken through radical or atomic intermediates. In contrast, the \(S_\text{N}\) and \(E\) reactions of alkyl halides, considered in Chapter 8, involve heterolytic bond cleavage and ionic reagents or products. An espe... | 17,978 | 72 |
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The equilibria (relative stabilities) and equilibration (rate of interconversion) of the rotational conformations of ethane and butane were discussed in Section 5-2. If you review this material, it will be clear that forming a ring from a hydrocarbon chain will greatly reduce the number of possible staggered and... | 14,175 | 73 |
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We know that the first law of thermodynamics governs changes in the state function we called (\(U\)) and that changes in the internal energy (\(ΔU\)) are closely related to changes in the enthalpy (\(ΔH\)), which is a measure of the heat flow between a system and its surroundings at constant pressure. You also... | 19,145 | 74 |
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One of the most striking characteristics of transition-metal complexes is the wide range of colors they exhibit. In this section, we describe crystal field theory (CFT), a bonding model that explains many important properties of transition-metal complexes, including their colors, magnetism, structures, ... | 17,591 | 75 |
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We turn now to discuss a few specific addition reactions of the carbonyl groups of aldehydes and ketones. We shall not attempt to provide an extensive catalog of reactions, but will try to emphasize the principles involved with especially important reactions that are useful in synthesis. Grignard reagents, organ... | 19,399 | 76 |
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The Heisenberg uncertainty principle argues that all atoms in a molecule are constantly in motion (otherwise we would know position and momentum accurately). For molecules, they exhibit three general types of motions: translations (external), rotations (internal) and vibrations (internal). A diatomic mo... | 4,360 | 79 |
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Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) , forms colorless crystals (resulting in white powder) and is obtained by mixing calcium oxide with water (calcium hydroxide is also called ). Calcium hydroxide is produced commerically in enormous quantities by thermal decomposition of limestone and subsequent exothermic reac... | 1,473 | 80 |
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Beryllium fluoride (\(BeF_2\)) is a white solid being used as the principal precursor for the manufacture of beryllium metal. The production of beryllium is done by the reduction of\( BeF_2\) at 1300°C with magnesium in a graphite crucible: \[BeF_2 + Mg \rightarrow Be + MgF_2\] In order to obtain \(BeF_... | 797 | 81 |
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This page looks at the various factors which influence the choice of method for extracting metals from their ores, including reduction by carbon, reduction by a reactive metal (like sodium or magnesium), and by electrolysis. Details for the extraction of aluminum, copper, iron and titanium are given in separate ... | 5,445 | 83 |
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In 1967 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Manfred Eigen, Ronald George, George Porter and Wreyford Norrish for their co-discovery of in 1949. Flash Photolysis is used extensively to study reactions that happen extremely quickly, even down to the femtosecond depending on the laser that is use... | 1,657 | 86 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Chemical_Equilibria/Calculating_An_Equilibrium_Concentrations/Calculating_an_Equilibrium_Constant_Using_Partial_Pressures |
The equilibrium constant is known as \(K_{eq}\). A common example of \(K_{eq}\) is with the reaction: \[aA + bB \rightleftharpoons cC + dD\] \[K_{eq} = \dfrac{[C]^c[D]^d}{[A]^a[B]^b}\] where: All the equilibrium constants tell the relative amounts of products and reactants at equilibrium. For any revers... | 3,310 | 90 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/17%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_II-_Enols_and_Enolate_Anions._Unsaturated_and_Polycarbonyl_Compounds/17.06%3A_-Unsaturated_Aldehydes_and_Ketones |
The most generally useful preparation of \(\alpha\),\(\beta\)-unsaturated carbonyl compounds is by dehydration of aldol addition products, as described in . Conjugation of the carbonyl group and double bond has a marked influence on spectroscopic properties, particularly on ultraviolet spectra, as the result of... | 3,327 | 91 |
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Dipole-Dipole interactions result when two dipolar molecules interact with each other through space. When this occurs, the partially negative portion of one of the polar molecules is attracted to the partially positive portion of the second polar molecule. This type of interaction between molecules acco... | 11,271 | 92 |
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It is now easy to extend our results to multiple trials with any number of outcomes. Let the outcomes be \(A\), \(B\), \(C\), ., \(Z\), for which the probabilities in a single trial are \(P_A\), \(P_B\), \(P_C\), \(P_Z\). We again want to write an equation for the total probability after \(n\) trials. We let \(... | 4,027 | 95 |
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Barium hydroxide, \(Ba(OH)_2\), is also known as baryta. It can be prepared either by dissolving barium oxide (\(BaO\)) or barium sulfide (\(BaS\)) in water: \[BaO + H_2O \rightarrow Ba(OH)_2 + H_2O\] \[BaS + H_2O \rightarrow Ba(OH)_2 + H_2S\] Barium hydroxide crystallizes as the octahydrate, \(Ba(OH)_2... | 761 | 97 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Selection_Rules_for_Electronic_Spectra_of_Transition_Metal_Complexes/Derivation_of_Laporte_Rule |
The Laporte Rule is a selection rule in electron absorption spectroscopy that applies to centrosymmetric molecules. It says that transitions between states of the same symmetry with respect to inversion are forbidden. Using the mathematical concept of even and odd functions, the Laporte Rule can be deri... | 10,013 | 100 |
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Calcium sulfide, CaS, crystallizes in cubes like rock salt and occurs as oldhamite in nature. CaS has an odor of rotten eggs, which stems from H S formed by hydrolysis of the calcium sulfide. CaS is produced by reduction of calcium sulfate with charcoal: CaSO + 2 C CaS + 2 CO It also occurs as a by-p... | 766 | 101 |
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Calcium sulfate, CaSO , is a common laboratory and industrial chemical and an often used material in the building trade. It occurs naturally in various forms, which differ in their crystal water content: gypsum (CaSO ·2H O), the hemihydrate (CaSO ·0.5H O) also known as plaster of Paris, and the anhydrit... | 775 | 102 |
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Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of electrically charged particles traveling through a vacuum or matter. and have certain characteristics, including amplitude, wavelength, and frequency (Figure \(\Page {... | 9,487 | 104 |
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Barium sulfate, \(BaSO_4\), is a white crystalline solid that is insoluble in water (solubility product \(K_{sp} = 1.1 \times 10^{-10}\)). The main commercial source of barium sulfate is the mineral baryte, which is normally highly impure. Baryte is reduced by heating with coke to barium sulfide, \(BaS\... | 1,116 | 105 |
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Proposed by Sir John Edward Lennard-Jones, the Lennard-Jones potential describes the potential energy of interaction between two non-bonding atoms or molecules based on their distance of separation. The potential equation accounts for the difference between attractive forces ( , dipole-induced dipole, a... | 7,090 | 109 |
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A partitioning of a compound exist between a mixture of two immiscible phases at equilibrium, which is a measure of the difference in solubility of the compound in these two phases. If one of the solvents is a gas and the other a liquid, the "gas/liquid partition coefficient" is the same as the dimensio... | 7,465 | 110 |
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This page discusses the acidity of the hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide. It begins by describing their physical properties and synthesis and then explains what happens when they react with water to make acids such as hydrofluoric acid and hydrochloric ... | 9,690 | 112 |
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Electron configuration can be described as how electrons are assembled within the orbitals shells and subshells of an atom. It is important to understand what an electron is in order to fully understand the electron configuration. An electron is a sub atomic particle that is associated with a negative c... | 3,243 | 113 |
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The interactions between ions (ion - ion interactions) are the easiest to understand: like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract. These Coulombic forces operate over relatively long distances in the gas phase. The force depends on the product of the charges (\(Z_1\), \(Z_2\)) divided by ... | 1,061 | 115 |
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Group 14 elements play more important roles in our lives and our civilization than elements of any other group. Thus, every educated person should know something about them. Carbon exists as diamond, graphite, fullerenes, and charcoal. Their structures are interesting; so are their properties. You proba... | 6,220 | 117 |
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Coordination isomerism occurs in compounds containing complex anionic and cationic parts and can be viewed as the interchange of one or more ligands between the cationic complex ion and the anionic complex ion. For example, \(\ce{[Co(NH3)6,Cr(CN)6]}\) is a coordination isomer with \(\ce{[Cr(NH3)6,Co(CN)... | 1,312 | 118 |
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To determine the value of the exponent in a rate equation term, we need to see how the rate varies with the concentration of the substance. For a single-reactant decomposition reaction of the form A → products in which the rate is – [A]/ , we simply plot [A] as function of time, draw tangents at various interval... | 3,319 | 119 |
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In this section we consider a method for finding the best possible one-electron wavefunctions that was published by Hartree in 1948 and improved two years later by Fock. For the Schrödinger equation to be solvable, the variables must be separable. The variables are the coordinates of the electrons. In order to s... | 17,477 | 120 |
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Thus far, we have been discussing problems and answers in equilibria--perhaps the most popular type of problem being how to find the of a weak solution given a certain concentration of a molecule. However, those problems in particular usually only involve what is called a monoprotic acid. “Mono” in the... | 4,657 | 121 |
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show two sets of peaks in the IR spectrum. Alkanes contain two kinds of bonds: C-C bonds and C-H bonds. However, these two facts are not related. The reasons are explained through bond polarity and molecular vibrations. Bond polarity can play a role in IR spectroscopy. Hooke's Law states: Hooke's Law in IR spect... | 882 | 122 |
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Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a given chemical species. Reduction Potential is a measurement of the amount of force required for a chemical species to gain electrons. The ionization energy is a single step process and follows a constant trend by decreasing... | 883 | 125 |
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This page briefly examines the oxides of carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and lead. It concentrates on the structural differences between carbon dioxide and silicon dioxide, and on the trends in acid-base behavior of the oxides down . The physical properties of carbon dioxide differ significantly from those of s... | 7,210 | 126 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/21%3A_Resonance_and_Molecular_Orbital_Methods/21.03%3A_Comparison_of_the_Resonance_and_Molecular-Orbital_Methods |
In this section, we will sketch the similarities and differences in the resonance (or valence-bond, VB) and molecular-orbital (MO) approaches for electron-pair bonds. Both methods normally start with atomic orbitals \(1s\), \(2s\), \(2p\), and so on, of the types discussed in . Where the methods differ is in ho... | 7,925 | 127 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colligative_Properties/Anomalous_Colligative_Properties_(Real_Solutions) |
Anomalous colligative properties are that deviate from the norm. Chemist Jacobus van 't Hoff was the first to describe anomalous colligative properties, but it was Svante Arrhenius who succeeded in explaining anomalous values of colligative properties. are the properties of solutions that rely only o... | 2,102 | 129 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/12%3A_Thermodynamic_Processes_and_Thermochemistry/12.2%3A_The_First_Law_of_Thermodynamics_-_Internal_Energy_Work_and_Heat |
The relationship between the energy change of a system and that of its surroundings is given by the first law of thermodynamics, which states that the energy of the universe is constant. We can express this law mathematically as follows: \[ \Delta U_{univ}=ΔU_{sys}+ΔU_{surr}=0 \label{12.4.1a} \] or \[\D... | 5,556 | 131 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases/Kinetic_Molecular_Theory_of_Gases |
To better understand the molecular origins of the , \[PV=nRT\] the basics of the ( ) should be understood. This model is used to describe the behavior of gases. More specifically, it is used to explain macroscopic properties of a gas, such as pressure and temperature, in terms of its microscopic comp... | 2,902 | 132 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/18%3A_Carboxylic_Acids_and_Their_Derivatives/18.10%3A_Reactions_of_Unsaturated_Carboxylic_Acids_and_Their_Derivatives |
Unsaturated carboxylic acids of the type \(\ce{RCH=CH(CH_2)}_n \ce{COOH}\) usually exhibit the properties characteristic of isolated double bonds and isolated carboxyl groups when \(n\) is large and the functional groups are far apart. As expected, exceptional behavior is found most commonly when the groups are ... | 4,704 | 134 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/1Group_17%3A_General_Reactions/Halide_Ions_as_Reducing_Agents |
This page examines the redox reactions involving halide ions and concentrated sulfuric acid, using these reactions to discuss the trend in reducing ability of the ions from fluoride to iodide. Two types of reactions might occur when concentrated sulfuric acid is added to a solid ionic halide like sodium fluoride... | 8,487 | 135 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Isomers/Structural_Isomers_-_Ionization_Isomerism_in_Transition_Metal_Complexes |
Coordination isomerism is a form of structural isomerism in which the composition of the complex ion varies. In a coordination isomer the total ratio of ligand to metal remains the same, but the ligands attached to a specific metal ion change. Ionization isomers can be thought of as occurring because of... | 3,527 | 136 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases/Basics_of_Kinetic_Molecular_Theory |
The ideal gas equation \[PV = nRT\] describes gases behave, e.g.: However, the ideal gas law (nor any of the constituent gas laws) does not explain gases behave this way? What happens to gas particles when conditions such as pressure and temperature change? This is addressed via Kinetic Molecule The... | 3,473 | 138 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/1Group_17%3A_General_Reactions/Halogens_as_Oxidizing_Agents |
This page examines the trend in oxidizing ability of the Group 17 elements (the halogens): fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. It considers the ability of one halogen to oxidize the ions of another, and how this changes down the group. Consider a situation in which one halogen (chlorine, for example) is reac... | 5,776 | 139 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/Z017_Chemistry_of_Chlorine_(Z17)/The_Manufacture_of_Chlorine |
This page describes the manufacture of chlorine by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using a diaphragm cell and a membrane cell. Both cells rely on the same underlying chemistry, but differ in detail. Chlorine is manufactured by electrolyzing sodium chloride solution. This process generates three usef... | 5,132 | 140 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/05%3A_Stereoisomerism_of_Organic_Molecules/5.06%3A_Molecules_with_More_Than_One_Chiral_Center._Diastereomers |
We have seen examples of molecules with one chiral center that exist in two mirror-image configurations, which we call enantiomers. What happens when there is more than one chiral center? How many stereoisomers should we expect? Consider the stereoisomers of the important amino acid, threonine, (2-amino-3-hydrox... | 7,167 | 141 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Infrared_Spectroscopy/Interpreting_Infrared_Spectra/IR4._Carbon_Carbon_Multiple_Bonds |
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen, but also have some multiple bonds between carbons. One type of unsaturated hydrocarbon is an olefin, also known as an alkene. Alkenes contain double bonds between carbons. One example of an alkene is 1-heptene. It looks similar to hexane, except for the ... | 833 | 143 |
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